Training can have a significant impact on all aspects of police service delivery and is of critical importance in the control of police-community violence. A Police Foundation study on the use of deadly force published in 1977 noted: “In the course of this study police chiefs and administrators were asked what steps they would consider most likely to bring about a reduction in unnecessary shootings by police officers. The most common response was to recommend a tight firearms policy coupled with an effective training program.”11
While one can generally agree with this response, findings in the 1982 International Association of Chiefs of Police report, A Balance of Forces, also need to be considered:
• In-service crisis intervention training as opposed to preservice training was associated with a low justifiable homicide rate by police.
• Agencies with simulator, stress, and physical exertion firearms training experience a higher justifiable homicide rate by police than agencies without such training.
• Marksmanship awards given to officers for proficiency in firearms training are associated with a high justifiable homicide rate by the police.
• In-service training in the principles of “officer survival” is correlated with a high justifiable homicide rate by the police.12
These findings clearly suggest that when it comes to training police officers, both the type of training and the approach to training police officers must be carefully examined. In examining this area, Herman Goldstein makes several pertinent observations on police entry-level training in Policing a Free Society:
• The success of training is commonly measured in terms of the number of hours of classroom work. Eight weeks is considered 100 percent improvement over four weeks...
• ...those who have analyzed the status of recruit training have found much that is wrong...the programs are structured to convey only one point of view on controversial matters in a manner intended to avoid open discussion.
• ...there is an unreal quality in the training program in the emphasis placed on military protocol, in their narrow concept of the police function, and in their according-to-the- book teaching of police operations.
• ...they tend to portray the police officer’s job as a rigid one, largely dictated by law, ignoring the tremendous amount of discretion officers are required to exercise.
• ...training programs fail to achieve the minimal goal of orienting a new employee to his job...failure to equip officers to understand the built-in stresses of their job...officers are left to discover on their own the binds in which society places them...
• If recruit training is inadequate, in-service training is more so.13
In Goldstein’s observations one begins to understand some of the limitations of automatically turning to training to solve all problems. Perhaps it also suggests why some training programs may be associated with a higher rate of police justifiable homicides. A more recent observation in this area is made by Scharf and Binder in The Badge and the Bullet:
Our analysis suggests a framework in which to analyze training related to police deadly force. Few training programs have attempted to conceptualize the varied and complex competencies necessary to implement a responsible deadly force policy. Most training...focuses upon one or possibly two isolated competencies. Shooting simulators attempt to train police officers to quickly identify threats against them. Some crisis intervention training approaches focus almost exclusively upon the verbal skills useful in dealing with a limited range of disputes. If training is to be effective in reducing the aggregate number of police shootings, it must focus on multiple psychological dimensions, emphasizing those capacities that might influence police behavior in a wide range of armed confrontations. Also, such training should be conducted in environments simulating the complex, and often bewildering, conditions in which deadly force episodes usually take place. From our observations, this approach to shooting training is rare in police departments.14
Scharf and Binder’s observations indicate a need to rethink the approach to firearms training and, at the same time, reinforce Goldstein’s observations almost 10 years earlier on training in general. Both observations, however, seem to suggest that the advantages to be gained from training will not be realized until programs go beyond teaching a single response to complex situations. The focus should be on training and developing a “thinking police officer” who analyzes situations and responds in the appropriate manner based upon a value system such as this publication proposes.
This is obviously a much different approach to training than has been used in law enforcement. It requires consideration of a total situation as opposed to focusing solely on the final “shoot/don’t shoot” decision. This does not mean that many of the components of current training programs should be dropped. They need to be tied together into a decision-making framework that causes officers to make decisions in earlier stages of responding to a call or handling an incident. This would minimize the risk of a situation evolving to a point where the use of firearms is required to protect someone’s life.
In support of a new approach to police training, Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department psychologists Marcia C. Mills and John G. Stratton reported findings in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin in February 1982 that “The nature of academy training and type of services actually provided are often discrepant. Seventy to 90 percent of police training is devoted to crime control, laws, and police procedures, while frequently 70 to 90 percent of subsequent job duties are devoted to interpersonal communication and interaction.”