The federal government and the states have long been permitted to limit
obscenity or
pornography.
While The Supreme Court has generally refused to give obscenity any protection under the First Amendment, pornography is subject to little regulation.
However, the exact definition of obscenity and pornography has changed over time.
When it decided
Rosen v. United States in 1896, the Supreme Court adopted the same obscenity standard as had been articulated in a famous British case,
Regina v. Hicklin, [1868] L. R. 3 Q. B. 360. The
Hicklin standard defined material as obscene if it tended "to deprave or corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences, and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall."
The Court ruled in
Roth v. United States, 354
U.S. 476 (1957) that the
Hicklin test was inappropriate. Instead, the
Roth test for obscenity was "whether to the average person, applying contemporary community standards, the dominant theme of the material, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest."
Justice
Potter Stewart, in
Jacobellis v. Ohio, 378
U.S. 184 (1964), famously stated that, although he could not precisely define pornography, "
I know it when I see it".
The
Roth test was expanded when the Court decided
Miller v. California, 413
U.S. 15 (1973). Under the
Miller test, a work is obscene if:
(a)...‘the average person, applying contemporary community standards’ would find the work, as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest,...(b)...the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law, and (c)...the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
Note that "community" standards—not national standards—are applied whether the material appeals to the prurient interest; thus, material may be deemed obscene in one locality but not in another. National standards, however, are applied whether the material is of value.
Child pornography is not subject to the
Miller test, as the Supreme Court decided in
New York v. Ferber, 458
U.S. 747 (1982). The Court thought that the government's interest in protecting children from abuse was paramount.
Personal possession of obscene material in the home may not be prohibited by law. In writing for the Court in the case of
Stanley v. Georgia, 394
U.S. 557 (1969), Justice
Thurgood Marshall wrote, "If the First Amendment means anything, it means that a State has no business telling a man, sitting in his own house, what books he may read or what films he may watch."
However, it is not unconstitutional for the government to prevent the mailing or sale of obscene items, though they may be viewed only in private.
Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition, 535
U.S. 234 (2002), further upheld these rights by invalidating the
Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996, holding that, because the act "[p]rohibit[ed] child pornography that does not depict an actual child..." it was overly broad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment.
Justice Anthony M. Kennedy wrote: "First Amendment freedoms are most in danger when the government seeks to control thought or to justify its laws for that impermissible end.
The right to think is the beginning of freedom, and speech must be protected from the government because speech is the beginning of thought."
In
United States v. Williams, 553 U.S. 285 (2008), by a vote of 7–2, the Supreme Court upheld the
PROTECT Act of 2003.
The Court ruled that prohibiting offers to provide and requests to obtain child pornography did not violate the First Amendment, even if a person charged under the Act did not possess child pornography.