Just wanting to get up to snuff on the topic so when I start to invest in the next few years, I'll know what the hell all the jargon means and be able to make a quasi-educated decision. Math isn't an issue, I'm finishing a PhD in Engineer/Computational Neuroscience.
Maybe I can save you a lot of time. Some years back I wanted to know the same things you asked about in your OP. My assumption was that more knowledge = better chance of investing success. So I learned all that, on my own, as a hobby. And what I found out was that none of it made me a better investor or improved my results. That was because I did not live and breathe the markets all day, every day. I didn't work in a field that exposed me to that 24/7.
What made me a better investor was the Bogleheads' books and website. I could have saved myself a lot of work by adopting their investing principles - asset allocation, keep expenses low, rebalancing - and leaving it at that. It reduces your risk and improves your returns vs. using actively managed funds. Set aside a portion of your investing fund for individual stocks if you want, but you would have to be one of the luckiest people in the world to consistently outperform indexes over time. The killer is that a wrong bet that costs you 20% means you have to gain 25% just to get back to where you started. Then you start thinking if you just had better timing, you'd do better. But no one can do that consistently.
I believe that unless you can spend an incredible amount of time studying and reading, the Bogleheads approach is superior. It might seem contradictory to think a simple approach to investing will perform better than a complex one, but it's true. Hedge funds and all those complex investments are real moneymakers but only for the people who run them.