Affirmative action refers to policies that take factors including "race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation or national origin"
[1] into consideration in order to benefit an underrepresented group, usually justified as countering the effects of a history of
discrimination.
Affirmative action has been the subject of numerous court cases,
[13] and has been contested on
constitutional grounds. In 2003, a Supreme Court decision (Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 US 306 - Supreme Court 2003) concerning affirmative action in universities
allowed educational institutions to consider race as a factor in admitting students, but ruled that strict point systems are unconstitutional.
[14] Conservatives say that state officials have widely disobeyed it.[
who?] Alternatively, some colleges use financial criteria to attract racial groups that have typically been under represented and typically have lower living conditions. Some states such as California (
California Civil Rights Initiative), Michigan (
Michigan Civil Rights Initiative), and Washington (
Initiative 200) have passed constitutional amendments banning affirmative action within their respective states.